The Geographical Review Volume 80 April 1990 Number 2 Boom Towns of the Amazon*

Major river in South America

Amazon River Rio Amazonas
Amazon River
Amazon River and its drainage bowl
Native name	Amazonas (Portuguese)
Location
Land	Peru, Colombia, Brazil
Metropolis	Iquitos (Republic of peru); Leticia (Colombia); Tabatinga (Brazil); Tefé (Brazil); Itacoatiara (Brazil) Parintins (Brazil); Óbidos (Brazil); Santarém (Brazil); Almeirim (Brazil); Macapá (Brazil); Manaus (Brazil)
Physical characteristics
Source	Río Apurimac, Mismi Superlative
• location	Arequipa Region, Peru
• coordinates	fifteen°31′04″Southward 71°41′37″W  /  xv.51778°S 71.69361°W  / -15.51778; -71.69361
• tiptop	5,220 grand (17,130 ft)
Mouth	Atlantic Bounding main
• location	Brazil
• coordinates	0°42′28″Due north 50°5′22″W  /  0.70778°N 50.08944°West  / 0.70778; -50.08944 [1]
Length	6,992 km (4,345 mi)[northward one]
Basin size	seven,000,000 kmii (ii,700,000 sq mi)[2] half-dozen,743,000 kmii (2,603,000 sq mi)[v]
Width
• minimum	ane km (0.62 mi)
• maximum	100 km (62 mi)
Depth
• minimum	20 chiliad (66 ft)
• maximum	100 m (330 ft)
Discharge
• location	Atlantic Body of water (about mouth)
• average	209,103 mthree/s (7,384,400 cu ft/s)[vi] [7] (Basin size: 5,956,000 kmii (2,300,000 sq mi)[8] 205,603.262 mthree/south (seven,260,810.seven cu ft/s)[9] (Bowl size: v,912,760.5 km2 (2,282,929.6 sq mi)[x]
• minimum	180,000 m3/due south (6,400,000 cu ft/southward)
• maximum	340,000 m3/s (12,000,000 cu ft/s)
Discharge
• location	Amazon Delta, Amazon/Tocantins/Pará
• average	230,000 yardiii/s (8,100,000 cu ft/due south)[v] (Basin size: 6,743,000 kmii (two,603,000 sq mi)[v] to vii,000,000 kmtwo (2,700,000 sq mi)[ii]
Discharge
• location	Santarém
• average	191,624.043 gthree/s (6,767,139.ii cu ft/s)[xi]
Belch
• location	Óbidos (800 km upstream of mouth - Basin size: 4,704,076 km2 (1,816,254 sq mi)
• average	173,272.643 m3/s (half dozen,119,065.6 cu ft/due south)[xiii] (Period of data: 1928-1996)176,177 yard3/s (6,221,600 cu ft/s)[12] (Period of data: 01/01/1997-31/12/2015)178,193.9 m3/s (half-dozen,292,860 cu ft/s)[14]
• minimum	75,602 chiliad3/south (2,669,900 cu ft/s)[12]
• maximum	306,317 one thousand3/s (x,817,500 cu ft/s)[12]
Discharge
• location	Manacapuru, Solimões (Basin size: 2,147,736 km2 (829,246 sq mi)
• average	(Period of information: 01/01/1997-31/12/2015)105,720 thousand3/due south (three,733,000 cu ft/southward)[15]
Basin features
Tributaries
• left	Marañón, Nanay, Napo, Ampiyaçu, Japurá/Caquetá, Rio Negro/Guainía, Putumayo, Badajós, Manacapuru, Urubu, Uatumã, Nhamundá, Trombetas, Maicurú, Curuá, Paru, Jari
• right	Ucayali, Jandiatuba, Javary, Jutai, Juruá, Tefé, Coari, Purús, Madeira, Paraná do Ramos, Tapajós, Curuá-Una, Xingu, Pará, Tocantins, Acará, Guamá

Topography of the Amazon River Basin

The Amazon River (, ; Spanish: Río Amazonas, Portuguese: Rio Amazonas) in Due south America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river in the world in comparison to the Nile.^{[ii] [xvi] [n 2]}

The headwaters of the Apurímac River on Nevado Mismi had been considered for nearly a century as the Amazon's well-nigh distant source, until a 2022 written report found information technology to be the headwaters of the Mantaro River on the Cordillera Rumi Cruz in Republic of peru.^[21] The Mantaro and Apurímac rivers bring together, and with other tributaries form the Ucayali River, which in turn meets the Marañón River upstream of Iquitos, Peru, forming what countries other than Brazil consider to be the master stalk of the Amazon. Brazilians call this section the Solimões River higher up its confluence with the Rio Negro^[22] forming what Brazilians phone call the Amazon at the Meeting of Waters (Portuguese: Encontro das Águas) at Manaus, the largest city on the river.

The Amazon River has an average discharge of about 209,000 grand³/south (seven,400,000 cu ft/s)—approximately 6,591 km^three (1,581 cu mi) per year, greater than the adjacent 7 largest independent rivers combined. Two of the peak 10 rivers by belch are tributaries of the Amazon river. The Amazon represents 20% of the global riverine belch into oceans.^[23] The Amazon basin is the largest drainage basin in the globe, with an area of approximately seven,000,000 kmⁱⁱ (two,700,000 sq mi).^[two] The portion of the river's drainage basin in Brazil alone is larger than any other river's basin. The Amazon enters Brazil with but one-fifth of the flow it finally discharges into the Atlantic Body of water, even so already has a greater catamenia at this signal than the discharge of any other river.^{[24] [25]}

Etymology [edit]

The Amazon was initially known by Europeans as the Marañón, and the Peruvian part of the river is still known by that proper name today. It later became known every bit Rio Amazonas in Spanish and Portuguese.

The name Rio Amazonas was reportedly given after native warriors attacked a 16th-century expedition by Francisco de Orellana. The warriors were led by women, reminding de Orellana of the Amazon warriors, a tribe of women warriors related to Iranian Scythians and Sarmatians^{[26] [27]} mentioned in Greek mythology. The word Amazon itself may be derived from the Iranian compound *ha-maz-an- "(one) fighting together"^[28] or ethnonym *ha-mazan- "warriors", a give-and-take attested indirectly through a derivation, a denominal verb in Hesychius of Alexandria'south gloss "ἁμαζακάραν· πολεμεῖν. Πέρσαι" (" hamazakaran : 'to brand war' in Persian"), where it appears together with the Indo-Iranian root *kar- "brand" (from which Sanskrit karma is also derived).^[29]

Other scholars merits that the proper noun is derived from the Native American word amassona, pregnant "boat destroyer."^[30]

History [edit]

Geological history [edit]

Recent geological studies propose that for millions of years the Amazon River used to flow in the reverse direction - from east to westward. Somewhen the Andes Mountains formed, blocking its flow to the Pacific Bounding main, and causing it to switch directions to its current oral cavity in the Atlantic Ocean.^[31]

Pre-Columbian era [edit]

Old drawing (from 1879) of Arapaima fishing at the Amazon river.

During what many archaeologists called the formative stage, Amazonian societies were deeply involved in the emergence of South America'southward highland agrarian systems. The trade with Andean civilizations in the terrains of the headwaters in the Andes formed an essential contribution to the social and religious development of higher-altitude civilizations like the Muisca and Incas. Early human being settlements were typically based on low-lying hills or mounds.

Shell mounds were the earliest bear witness of habitation; they stand for piles of human reject (waste material) and are mainly dated between 7500 and 4000 years BC. They are associated with ceramic age cultures; no preceramic trounce mounds have been documented then far by archaeologists.^[32] Bogus earth platforms for entire villages are the second type of mounds. They are best represented by the Marajoara civilization. Figurative mounds are the almost recent types of occupation.

At that place is ample prove that the areas surrounding the Amazon River were domicile to complex and large-calibration indigenous societies, mainly chiefdoms who developed towns and cities.^[33] Archaeologists gauge that by the fourth dimension the Castilian conquistador De Orellana traveled beyond the Amazon in 1541, more than iii million indigenous people lived around the Amazon.^[34] These pre-Columbian settlements created highly adult civilizations. For example, pre-Columbian indigenous people on the island of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population of 100,000 people. To accomplish this level of development, the indigenous inhabitants of the Amazon rainforest altered the forest's environmental by selective cultivation and the utilise of fire. Scientists argue that past burning areas of the wood repeatedly, the ethnic people caused the soil to go richer in nutrients. This created night soil areas known as terra preta de índio ("Indian dark globe").^[35] Because of the terra preta, ethnic communities were able to brand state fertile and thus sustainable for the big-scale agronomics needed to support their large populations and complex social structures. Further research has hypothesized that this do began around 11,000 years ago. Some say that its effects on forest ecology and regional climate explicate the otherwise inexplicable ring of lower rainfall through the Amazon basin.^[35]

Many indigenous tribes engaged in constant warfare. According to James South. Olson, "The Munduruku expansion (in the 18th century) dislocated and displaced the Kawahíb, breaking the tribe down into much smaller groups ... [Munduruku] kickoff came to the attention of Europeans in 1770 when they began a series of widespread attacks on Brazilian settlements along the Amazon River."^[36]

Arrival of Europeans [edit]

Amazon tributaries well-nigh Manaus

In March 1500, Spanish conquistador Vicente Yáñez Pinzón was the beginning documented European to sail upwards the Amazon River.^[37] Pinzón called the stream Río Santa María del Mar Dulce, later shortened to Mar Dulce, literally, sweet sea, considering of its freshwater pushing out into the bounding main. Another Spanish explorer, Francisco de Orellana, was the starting time European to travel from the origins of the upstream river basins, situated in the Andes, to the mouth of the river. In this journey, Orellana baptized some of the affluents of the Amazonas similar Rio Negro, Napo and Jurua. The name Amazonas is thought to be taken from the native warriors that attacked this trek, by and large women, that reminded De Orellana of the mythical female Amazon warriors from the ancient Hellenic civilisation in Greece (run into also Origin of the name).

Exploration [edit]

Gonzalo Pizarro set off in 1541 to explore east of Quito into the South American interior in search of El Dorado, the "city of golden" and La Canela, the "valley of cinnamon".^[38] He was accompanied by his second-in-control Francisco de Orellana. Afterward 170 km (106 mi), the Coca River joined the Napo River (at a betoken now known every bit Puerto Francisco de Orellana); the party stopped for a few weeks to build a boat only upriver from this confluence. They continued downriver through an uninhabited area, where they could not find food. Orellana offered and was ordered to follow the Napo River, and then known as Río de la Canela ("Cinnamon River"), and return with food for the party. Based on intelligence received from a convict native chief named Delicola, they expected to find nutrient inside a few days downriver by ascending some other river to the north.

De Orellana took about 57 men, the boat, and some canoes and left Pizarro'southward troops on 26 Dec 1541. However, De Orellana missed the confluence (probably with the Aguarico) where he was searching supplies for his men. By the fourth dimension he and his men reached another village, many of them were sick from hunger and eating "baneful plants", and near expiry. 7 men died in that hamlet. His men threatened to mutiny if the expedition turned dorsum to attempt to rejoin Pizarro, the party being over 100 leagues downstream at this point. He accepted to change the purpose of the expedition to discover new lands in the name of the male monarch of Spain, and the men congenital a larger boat in which to navigate downstream. After a journey of 600 km (370 mi) down the Napo River, they reached a further major confluence, at a point almost modernistic Iquitos, and then followed the upper Amazon, at present known as the Solimões, for a farther 1,200 km (746 mi) to its confluence with the Rio Negro (near mod Manaus), which they reached on 3 June 1542.

Regarding the initial mission of finding cinnamon, Pizarro reported to the king that they had found cinnamon copse, simply that they could not be profitably harvested. True cinnamon (Cinnamomum Verum) is not native to South America. Other related cinnamon-containing plants (of the family Lauraceae) are adequately common in that part of the Amazon and Pizarro probably saw some of these. The trek reached the oral fissure of the Amazon on 24 August 1542, demonstrating the practical navigability of the Great River.

In 1560, some other Spanish conquistador, Lope de Aguirre, may have made the 2d descent of the Amazon. Historians are uncertain whether the river he descended was the Amazon or the Orinoco River, which runs more or less parallel to the Amazon further northward.

Portuguese explorer Pedro Teixeira was the kickoff European to travel up the entire river. He arrived in Quito in 1637, and returned via the same route.^[39]

From 1648 to 1652, Portuguese Brazilian bandeirante António Raposo Tavares led an expedition from São Paulo overland to the oral cavity of the Amazon, investigating many of its tributaries, including the Rio Negro, and covering a distance of over 10,000 km (6,200 mi).

In what is currently in Brazil, Republic of ecuador, Republic of bolivia, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela, several colonial and religious settlements were established forth the banks of primary rivers and tributaries for trade, slaving, and evangelization among the indigenous peoples of the vast rainforest, such equally the Urarina. In the belatedly 1600s, Czech Jesuit Father Samuel Fritz, an apostle of the Omagus established some xl mission villages. Fritz proposed that the Marañón River must be the source of the Amazon, noting on his 1707 map that the Marañón "has its source on the southern shore of a lake that is called Lauricocha, nearly Huánuco." Fritz reasoned that the Marañón is the largest river branch ane encounters when journeying upstream, and lies further to the west than any other tributary of the Amazon. For most of the 18th–19th centuries and into the 20th century, the Marañón was mostly considered the source of the Amazon.^[40]

Scientific exploration [edit]

Early on scientific, zoological, and botanical exploration of the Amazon River and basin took place from the 18th century through the first half of the 19th century.

• Charles Marie de La Condamine explored the river in 1743.^[41]
• Alexander von Humboldt, 1799–1804
• Johann Baptist von Spix and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, 1817–1820
• Georg von Langsdorff, 1826–1828
• Henry Walter Bates and Alfred Russel Wallace, 1848–1859
• Richard Bandbox, 1849–1864

Post-colonial exploitation and settlement [edit]

Amazon Theatre opera house in Manaus congenital in 1896 during the rubber boom

The Cabanagem revolt (1835–1840) was directed against the white ruling class. Information technology is estimated that from xxx% to 40% of the population of Grão-Pará, estimated at 100,000 people, died.^[42]

The population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon bowl in 1850 was peradventure 300,000, of whom about 175,000 were Europeans and 25,000 were slaves. The Brazilian Amazon's principal commercial city, Pará (now Belém), had from ten,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of Manáos, now Manaus, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had a population between 1,000 and 1,500. All the remaining villages, equally far up as Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier of Republic of peru, were relatively small.^[43]

On 6 September 1850, Emperor Pedro Ii of Brazil sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon and gave the Viscount of Mauá (Irineu Evangelista de Sousa) the task of putting it into effect. He organised the "Companhia de Navegação e Comércio do Amazonas" in Rio de Janeiro in 1852; in the post-obit twelvemonth it commenced operations with four small steamers, the Monarca ('Monarch'), the Cametá, the Marajó and the Rio Negro.^{[43] [44]}

At commencement, navigation was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Pará and Manaus, with steamers of 200 tons cargo chapters, a 2d line to brand six round voyages a year betwixt Manaus and Tabatinga, and a 3rd, two trips a month between Pará and Cametá.^[43] This was the first footstep in opening upwardly the vast interior.

The success of the venture called attention to the opportunities for economic exploitation of the Amazon, and a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purús, and Negro; a third established a line betwixt Pará and Manaus, and a fourth plant it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams. In that aforementioned period, the Amazonas Company was increasing its fleet. Meanwhile, individual individuals were building and running pocket-sized steam craft of their ain on the main river also as on many of its tributaries.^[43]

On 31 July 1867, the authorities of Brazil, constantly pressed past the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the upper Amazon basin, especially Republic of peru, decreed the opening of the Amazon to all countries, but they limited this to sure divers points: Tabatinga – on the Amazon; Cametá – on the Tocantins; Santarém – on the Tapajós; Borba – on the Madeira, and Manaus – on the Rio Negro. The Brazilian decree took issue on 7 September 1867.^[43]

Thanks in part to the mercantile evolution associated with steamboat navigation coupled with the internationally driven demand for natural rubber, the Peruvian city of Iquitos became a thriving, cosmopolitan center of commerce. Foreign companies settled in Iquitos, from where they controlled the extraction of condom. In 1851 Iquitos had a population of 200, and past 1900 its population reached twenty,000. In the 1860s, approximately 3,000 tons of rubber were being exported annually, and by 1911 almanac exports had grown to 44,000 tons, representing ix.3% of Peru'south exports.^[45] During the rubber boom it is estimated that diseases brought past immigrants, such as typhus and malaria, killed 40,000 native Amazonians.^[46]

The outset directly strange trade with Manaus commenced around 1874. Local trade along the river was carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company—the Amazon Steam Navigation Company—as well every bit numerous pocket-size steamboats, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the prophylactic trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purús, and many other tributaries,^[43] such as the Marañón, to ports as afar as Nauta, Peru.

Past the turn of the 20th century, the exports of the Amazon basin were India-rubber, cacao beans, Brazil nuts and a few other products of minor importance, such as pelts and exotic forest produce (resins, barks, woven hammocks, prized bird feathers, live animals) and extracted appurtenances, such as lumber and gold.

20th-century evolution [edit]

Since colonial times, the Portuguese portion of the Amazon basin has remained a land largely undeveloped by agriculture and occupied past indigenous people who survived the arrival of European diseases.

Four centuries subsequently the European discovery of the Amazon river, the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 65 kmⁱⁱ (25 sq mi), excluding the limited and crudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters.^[47] This state of affairs changed dramatically during the 20th century.

Wary of strange exploitation of the nation'south resources, Brazilian governments in the 1940s set out to develop the interior, away from the seaboard where foreigners endemic large tracts of land. The original builder of this expansion was president Getúlio Vargas, with the demand for condom from the Allied forces in World War 2 providing funding for the drive.

In the 1960s, economic exploitation of the Amazon basin was seen equally a way to fuel the "economic miracle" occurring at the fourth dimension. This resulted in the development of "Functioning Amazon", an economical development project that brought big-scale agriculture and ranching to Amazonia. This was done through a combination of credit and fiscal incentives.^[48]

However, in the 1970s the government took a new approach with the National Integration Plan (PIN). A large-scale colonization program saw families from northeastern Brazil relocated to the "land without people" in the Amazon Bowl. This was done in conjunction with infrastructure projects mainly the Trans-Amazonian Highway (Transamazônica).^[48]

The Trans-Amazonian Highway'south 3 pioneering highways were completed inside ten years only never fulfilled their promise. Large portions of the Trans-Amazonian and its accessory roads, such every bit BR-319 (Manaus-Porto Velho), are derelict and impassable in the rainy season. Small towns and villages are scattered across the forest, and because its vegetation is so dense, some remote areas are still unexplored.

Many settlements grew along the road from Brasília to Belém with the highway and National Integration Program, still, the program failed every bit the settlers were unequipped to alive in the delicate rainforest ecosystem. This, although the government believed information technology could sustain millions, instead could sustain very few.^[49]

With a population of one.9 1000000 people in 2014, Manaus is the largest city on the Amazon. Manaus alone makes upwardly approximately 50% of the population of the largest Brazilian state of Amazonas. The racial makeup of the city is 64% pardo (mulatto and mestizo) and 32% white.^[fifty]

Although the Amazon river remains undammed, effectually 412 dams are in functioning in the Amazon's tributary rivers. From these 412 dams, 151 are constructed over six of the main tributary rivers that drain into the Amazon.^[51] Since merely 4% of the Amazon's hydropower potential has been developed in countries like Brazil,^[52] more damming projects are underway and hundreds more are planned.^[53] Afterwards witnessing the negative effects of environmental degradation, sedimentation, navigation and flood control caused by the Iii Gorges Dam in the Yangtze River,^[54] scientists are worried that amalgam more dams in the Amazon will harm its biodiversity in the same fashion by "blocking fish-spawning runs, reducing the flows of vital oil nutrients and clearing forests".^[53] Damming the Amazon River could potentially bring about the "end of free flowing rivers" and contribute to an "ecosystem collapse" that volition cause major social and environmental issues.^[51]

Course [edit]

Origins [edit]

The Amazon was thought to originate from the Apacheta cliff in Arequipa at the Nevado Mismi, marked just by a wooden cross.

Nevado Mismi, formerly considered to exist the source of the Amazon

The nearly distant source of the Amazon was thought to be in the Apurímac river drainage for almost a century. Such studies connected to be published even recently, such equally in 1996,^[55] 2001,^[56] 2007,^[xviii] and 2008,^[57] where diverse authors identified the snowcapped 5,597 m (18,363 ft) Nevado Mismi peak, located roughly 160 km (99 mi) westward of Lake Titicaca and 700 km (430 mi) southeast of Lima, every bit the most distant source of the river. From that indicate, Quebrada Carhuasanta emerges from Nevado Mismi, joins Quebrada Apacheta and soon forms Río Lloqueta which becomes Río Hornillos and eventually joins the Río Apurímac.

A 2022 study by Americans James Contos and Nicolas Tripcevich in Area, a peer-reviewed journal of the Royal Geographical Society, withal, identifies the near distant source of the Amazon as actually being in the Río Mantaro drainage.^[21] A variety of methods were used to compare the lengths of the Mantaro river vs. the Apurímac river from their most distant source points to their confluence, showing the longer length of the Mantaro. Then distances from Lago Junín to several potential source points in the uppermost Mantaro river were measured, which enabled them to determine that the Cordillera Rumi Cruz was the near distant source of water in the Mantaro basin (and therefore in the unabridged Amazon basin). The most authentic measurement method was direct GPS measurement obtained by kayak descent of each of the rivers from their source points to their confluence (performed by Contos). Obtaining these measurements was difficult given the class IV–V nature of each of these rivers, especially in their lower "Abyss" sections. Ultimately, they determined that the almost distant point in the Mantaro drainage is nearly lxxx km farther upstream compared to Mt. Mismi in the Apurímac drainage, and thus the maximal length of the Amazon river is about fourscore km longer than previously thought. Contos continued downstream to the bounding main and finished the first complete descent of the Amazon river from its newly identified source (finishing November 2012), a journey repeated by two groups later the news spread.^[58]

After almost 700 km (430 mi), the Apurímac and so joins Río Mantaro to form the Ene, which joins the Perene to form the Tambo, which joins the Urubamba River to form the Ucayali. Afterwards the confluence of Apurímac and Ucayali, the river leaves Andean terrain and is surrounded by floodplain. From this betoken to the confluence of the Ucayali and the Marañón, some i,600 km (990 mi), the forested banks are simply above the water and are inundated long before the river attains its maximum flood phase.^[43] The low river banks are interrupted by simply a few hills, and the river enters the enormous Amazon rainforest.

The Upper Amazon or Solimões [edit]

Although the Ucayali–Marañón confluence is the betoken at which most geographers place the first of the Amazon River proper, in Brazil the river is known at this betoken as the Solimões das Águas. The river systems and inundation plains in Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela, whose waters drain into the Solimões and its tributaries, are chosen the "Upper Amazon".

The Amazon proper runs by and large through Brazil and Peru, and is part of the border between Colombia and Perú. It has a series of major tributaries in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, some of which flow into the Marañón and Ucayali, and others directly into the Amazon proper. These include rivers Putumayo, Caquetá, Vaupés, Guainía, Morona, Pastaza, Nucuray, Urituyacu, Chambira, Tigre, Nanay, Napo, and Huallaga.

At some points, the river divides into anabranches, or multiple channels, ofttimes very long, with inland and lateral channels, all continued by a complicated system of natural canals, cut the low, flat igapó lands, which are never more than than 5 m (16 ft) above low river, into many islands.^[59]

From the town of Canaria at the great bend of the Amazon to the Negro, vast areas of land are submerged at loftier water, above which only the upper office of the trees of the sombre forests announced. Near the oral cavity of the Rio Negro to Serpa, virtually opposite the river Madeira, the banks of the Amazon are low, until approaching Manaus, they rise to go rolling hills.^[43]

The Lower Amazon [edit]

The Lower Amazon begins where the darkly colored waters of the Rio Negro meets the sandy-colored Rio Solimões (the upper Amazon), and for over half-dozen km (3.7 mi) these waters run next without mixing. At Óbidos, a bluff 17 m (56 ft) higher up the river is backed by low hills. The lower Amazon seems to have once been a gulf of the Atlantic Sea, the waters of which washed the cliffs about Óbidos.

Simply about ten% of the Amazon'due south water enters downstream of Óbidos, very little of which is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage expanse of the Amazon basin above Óbidos metropolis is about v,000,000 km^two (ane,900,000 sq mi), and, below, only about ane,000,000 km² (390,000 sq mi) (effectually 20%), exclusive of the 1,400,000 kmⁱⁱ (540,000 sq mi) of the Tocantins basin.^[43] The Tocantins River enters the southern portion of the Amazon delta.

In the lower reaches of the river, the due north bank consists of a serial of steep, table-topped hills extending for about 240 km (150 mi) from reverse the oral fissure of the Xingu as far every bit Monte Alegre. These hills are cut downwardly to a kind of terrace which lies between them and the river.^[59]

On the south banking concern, above the Xingu, a line of low bluffs bordering the floodplain extends nearly to Santarém in a series of gentle curves before they curve to the southwest, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajós, merge into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of the Tapajós river valley.^[60]

Mouth [edit]

Satellite image of the mouth of the Amazon River, from the north looking southward

Belém is the major city and port at the rima oris of the river at the Atlantic Ocean. The definition of where exactly the mouth of the Amazon is located, and how wide it is, is a matter of dispute, because of the surface area'due south peculiar geography. The Pará and the Amazon are continued by a series of river channels called furos near the town of Breves; between them lies Marajó, the globe's largest combined river/bounding main island.

If the Pará river and the Marajó island ocean frontage are included, the Amazon estuary is some 325 km (202 mi) broad.^[61] In this instance, the width of the mouth of the river is usually measured from Cabo Norte, the cape located straight east of Pracuúba in the Brazilian land of Amapá, to Ponta da Tijoca near the town of Curuçá, in the state of Pará.

A more conservative measurement excluding the Pará river estuary, from the mouth of the Araguari River to Ponta do Navio on the northern coast of Marajó, would still give the oral cavity of the Amazon a width of over 180 km (112 mi). If just the river's principal channel is considered, between the islands of Curuá (land of Amapá) and Jurupari (state of Pará), the width falls to about 15 km (nine.3 mi).

The plume generated by the river'southward discharge covers up to i.3 million km^two and is responsible for dingy bottoms influencing a broad area of the tropical north Atlantic in terms of salinity, pH, light penetration, and sedimentation.^[23]

Lack of bridges [edit]

There are no bridges across the unabridged width of the river.^[62] This is not because the river would exist too broad to bridge; for most of its length, engineers could build a bridge across the river easily. For most of its course, the river flows through the Amazon Rainforest, where at that place are very few roads and cities. Virtually of the time, the crossing can be done by a ferry. The Manaus Iranduba Bridge linking the cities of Manaus and Iranduba spans the Rio Negro, the second-largest tributary of the Amazon, only before their confluence.

Dispute regarding length [edit]

While argue as to whether the Amazon or the Nile is the earth's longest river has gone on for many years, the historic consensus of geographic authorities has been to regard the Amazon as the second longest river in the world, with the Nile beingness the longest. However, the Amazon has been reported as being anywhere between 6,275 and half-dozen,992 km (3,899 and 4,345 mi) long.^[3] It is often said to be "at least" vi,575 km (four,086 mi) long.^[2] The Nile is reported to exist anywhere from 5,499 to 7,088 km (3,417 to 4,404 mi).^[3] Often it is said to be "about" 6,650 km (4,130 mi) long.^[17] There are several factors that can touch these measurements, such as the position of the geographical source and the mouth, the scale of measurement, and the length measuring techniques (for details see as well List of rivers by length).^{[3] [4]}

In July 2008, the Brazilian Constitute for Space Research (INPE) published a news article on their webpage, claiming that the Amazon River was 140 km (87 mi) longer than the Nile. The Amazon'southward length was calculated as 6,992 km (4,345 mi), taking the Apacheta Creek equally its source. Using the same techniques, the length of the Nile was calculated every bit 6,853 km (four,258 mi), which is longer than previous estimates simply still shorter than the Amazon. The results were reached by measuring the Amazon downstream to the kickoff of the tidal estuary of Culvert practice Sul and then, later a sharp turn back, following tidal canals surrounding the isle of Marajó and finally including the marine waters of the Río Pará bay in its entire length.^{[57] [xx]} According to an before commodity on the webpage of the National Geographic, the Amazon's length was calculated as 6,800 km (4,200 mi) by a Brazilian scientist. In June 2007, Guido Gelli, director of science at the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), told London's Telegraph Newspaper that it could be considered that the Amazon was the longest river in the world.^[63] However, co-ordinate to the above sources, none of the 2 results was published, and questions were raised about the researchers' methodology. In 2009, a peer-reviewed article, was published, concluding that the Nile is longer than the Amazon by stating a length of 7,088 km (four,404 mi) for the Nile and half-dozen,575 km (4,086 mi) for the Amazon, measured past using a combination of satellite image analysis and field investigations to the source regions.^[iii] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the final length of the Amazon remains open up to interpretation and continued debate.^{[2] [xx]}

Watershed [edit]

The Amazon basin, the largest in the world, covers about 40% of South America, an surface area of approximately seven,050,000 km² (2,720,000 sq mi). Information technology drains from due west to due east, from Iquitos in Republic of peru, across Brazil to the Atlantic. It gathers its waters from 5 degrees north latitude to xx degrees south latitude. Its most remote sources are institute on the inter-Andean plateau, only a short distance from the Pacific Ocean.^[64]

The Amazon River and its tributaries are characterised by all-encompassing forested areas that become flooded every rainy flavour. Every yr, the river rises more than 9 m (30 ft), flooding the surrounding forests, known as várzea ("flooded forests"). The Amazon's flooded forests are the virtually extensive example of this habitat type in the world.^[65] In an average dry season, 110,000 km² (42,000 sq mi) of country are water-covered, while in the wet flavour, the flooded area of the Amazon bowl rises to 350,000 km² (140,000 sq mi).^[61]

The quantity of water released by the Amazon to the Atlantic Ocean is enormous: up to 300,000 g³/s (xi,000,000 cu ft/s) in the rainy season, with an average of 209,000 m^three/s (seven,400,000 cu ft/south) from 1973 to 1990.^[66] The Amazon is responsible for near 20% of the Globe's fresh water entering the sea.^[65] The river pushes a vast plume of fresh h2o into the bounding main. The plume is most 400 km (250 mi) long and betwixt 100 and 200 km (62 and 124 mi) wide. The fresh water, existence lighter, flows on top of the seawater, diluting the salinity and altering the color of the sea surface over an area up to 2,500,000 km^two (970,000 sq mi) in extent. For centuries ships accept reported fresh water well-nigh the Amazon's oral fissure yet well out of sight of land in what otherwise seemed to be the open ocean.^[25]

The Atlantic has sufficient moving ridge and tidal free energy to deport most of the Amazon'south sediments out to sea, thus the Amazon does not course a true delta. The great deltas of the world are all in relatively protected bodies of water, while the Amazon empties direct into the turbulent Atlantic.^[22]

There is a natural water union between the Amazon and the Orinoco basins, the so-chosen Casiquiare canal. The Casiquiare is a river distributary of the upper Orinoco, which flows southward into the Rio Negro, which in plow flows into the Amazon. The Casiquiare is the largest river on globe that links 2 major river systems, a and so-called bifurcation.

Flooding [edit]

NASA satellite image of a flooded portion of the river

Non all of the Amazon'due south tributaries flood at the same time of the twelvemonth. Many branches brainstorm flooding in November and might continue to rise until June. The rise of the Rio Negro starts in February or March and begins to recede in June. The Madeira River rises and falls two months earlier than most of the rest of the Amazon river.

The depth of the Amazon between Manacapuru and Óbidos has been calculated as betwixt 20 to 26 m (66 to 85 ft). At Manacapuru, the Amazon's h2o level is simply well-nigh 24 1000 (79 ft) in a higher place mean bounding main level. More than half of the h2o in the Amazon downstream of Manacapuru is below ocean level.^[67] In its lowermost department, the Amazon's depth averages 20 to 50 m (66 to 164 ft), in some places as much as 100 k (330 ft).^[68]

The main river is navigable for big sea steamers to Manaus, ane,500 km (930 mi) upriver from the oral fissure. Smaller sea vessels below 9000 tons and with less than 5.5 m (18 ft) draft can attain as far as Iquitos, Peru, 3,600 km (ii,200 mi) from the sea. Smaller riverboats can attain 780 km (480 mi) higher, every bit far as Achual Point. Beyond that, small boats oft ascend to the Pongo de Manseriche, simply above Achual Point in Peru.^[59]

Annual flooding occurs in late northern latitude wintertime at loftier tide when the incoming waters of the Atlantic are funnelled into the Amazon delta. The resulting undular tidal bore is chosen the pororoca, with a leading moving ridge that tin be up to 7.6 m (25 ft) loftier and travel upwards to 800 km (500 mi) inland.^{[69] [70]}

Geology [edit]

The Amazon River originated every bit a transcontinental river in the Miocene epoch between 11.8 million and xi.3 million years ago and took its present shape approximately 2.four 1000000 years ago in the Early Pleistocene.

The proto-Amazon during the Cretaceous flowed west, as part of a proto-Amazon-Congo river system, from the interior of present-day Africa when the continents were connected, forming western Gondwana. 80 1000000 years ago, the two continents split. Fifteen 1000000 years ago, the main tectonic uplift phase of the Andean chain started. This tectonic movement is caused past the subduction of the Nazca Plate underneath the South American Plate. The ascent of the Andes and the linkage of the Brazilian and Republic of guyana bedrock shields,^{[ clarification needed ]} blocked the river and caused the Amazon Bowl to become a vast inland sea. Gradually, this inland sea became a massive swampy, freshwater lake and the marine inhabitants adapted to life in freshwater.^[71]

Xi to ten million years agone, waters worked through the sandstone from the west and the Amazon began to flow due east, leading to the emergence of the Amazon rainforest. During glacial periods, sea levels dropped and the nifty Amazon lake rapidly drained and became a river, which would somewhen become the world'southward second-largest, draining the most all-encompassing area of rainforest on the planet.^[72]

Paralleling the Amazon River is a large aquifer, dubbed the Hamza River, the discovery of which was made public in August 2011.^[73]

Protected areas [edit]

Name	Country	Coordinates	Epitome	Notes
Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve	Republic of peru	3°56′South 73°33′W  /  iii.933°S 73.550°W  / -3.933; -73.550		[74]
Amacayacu National Park	Colombia	3°29′S 72°12′W  /  3.483°S 72.200°W  / -3.483; -72.200		[75]
Amazônia National Park	Brazil	4°26′Due south 56°fifty′Westward  /  4.433°S 56.833°Due west  / -4.433; -56.833		[76]
Anavilhanas National Park	Brazil	2°23′South threescore°55′W  /  2.383°S 60.917°Westward  / -2.383; -60.917		[77]

Flora and animal [edit]

Flora [edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2017)

Creature [edit]

The tambaqui, an important species in Amazonian fisheries, breeds in the Amazon River

More than one-third of all known species in the world alive in the Amazon rainforest,^[78] a giant tropical wood and river basin with an area that stretches more than 5,400,000 km² (ii,100,000 sq mi). It is the richest tropical forest in the world in terms of biodiversity. There are over 3,000 species of fish currently recognised in the Amazon basin, with more being discovered every year.^[79] In addition to the thousands of species of fish, the river supports crabs, algae, and turtles.

Mammals [edit]

Forth with the Orinoco, the Amazon is one of the main habitats of the boto, also known as the Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis). It is the largest species of river dolphin, and information technology can grow to lengths of up to 2.half dozen thousand (viii.5 ft). The colour of its peel changes with historic period; young animals are grayness, just become pink and and then white as they mature. The dolphins utilise echolocation to navigate and chase in the river'south tricky depths.^[eighty] The boto is the discipline of a fable in Brazil nigh a dolphin that turns into a homo and seduces maidens by the riverside.^[81]

The tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis), also a dolphin species, is plant both in the rivers of the Amazon basin and in the littoral waters of South America. The Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis), as well known as "seacow", is establish in the northern Amazon River basin and its tributaries. It is a mammal and a plant eater. Its population is limited to freshwater habitats, and, unlike other manatees, information technology does non venture into saltwater. It is classified equally vulnerable by the International Spousal relationship for Conservation of Nature.^[82]

The Amazon and its tributaries are the main habitat of the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis).^[83] Sometimes known as the "river wolf," it is one of Southward America'south top carnivores. Because of habitat destruction and hunting, its population has dramatically decreased. Information technology is now listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which effectively bans international trade.^[84]

Reptiles [edit]

This section needs expansion. You can assistance past calculation to it. (February 2017)

The Anaconda is found in shallow waters in the Amazon basin. One of the earth's largest species of ophidian, the anaconda spends nearly of its time in the water with just its nostrils above the surface. Species of caimans, that are related to alligators and other crocodilians, as well inhabit the Amazon equally do varieties of turtles.^[85]

Birds [edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to information technology. (February 2017)

Fish [edit]

Neon tetra is 1 of the most popular aquarium fish

The Amazonian fish fauna is the centre of diversity for neotropical fishes. 5,600 species are currently known, and approximately 50 new species are discovered each year.^{[86] [87]} The arapaima, known in Brazil as the pirarucu, is a Southward American tropical freshwater fish, i of the largest freshwater fish in the globe, with a length of upwardly to 15 feet (iv.vi one thousand).^[88] Another Amazonian freshwater fish is the arowana (or aruanã in Portuguese), such every bit the argent arowana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum), which is a predator and very similar to the arapaima, only but reaches a length of 120 cm (47 in). Also present in large numbers is the notorious piranha, an omnivorous fish that congregates in large schools and may set on livestock. There are approximately xxx to 60 species of piranha. The candirú, native to the Amazon River, is a species of parasitic fresh h2o catfish in the family unit Trichomycteridae,^[89] but i of more than 1200 species of catfish in the Amazon bowl. Other catfish 'walk' overland on their ventral fins,^[90] while the kumakuma (Brachyplatystoma filamentosum), aka piraiba or "goliath catfish", can reach 3.6 m (12 ft) in length and 200 kg (440 lb) in weight.^[91]

The electric eel (Electrophorus electricus) and more than than 100 species of electrical fishes (Gymnotiformes) inhabit the Amazon basin. River stingrays (Potamotrygonidae) are besides known. The balderdash shark (Carcharhinus leucas) has been reported iv,000 km (2,500 mi) up the Amazon River at Iquitos in Peru.^[92]

Butterflies [edit]

Microbiota [edit]

Freshwater microbes are generally not very well known, even less so for a pristine ecosystem like the Amazon. Recently, metagenomics has provided answers to what kind of microbes inhabit the river.^[93] The most important microbes in the Amazon River are Actinomycetota, Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria and Thermoproteota.

Major tributaries [edit]

Solimões, the section of the upper Amazon River

Aerial view of an Amazon tributary

The Amazon has over 1,100 tributaries, twelve of which are over ane,500 km (930 mi) long.^[94] Some of the more than notable ones are:

• Branco
• Casiquiare culvert
• Caquetá
• Huallaga
• Putumayo (or Içá River)
• Javary (or Yavarí)
• Juruá
• Madeira
• Marañón
• Morona
• Nanay
• Napo
• Negro
• Pastaza
• Purús
• Tambo
• Tapajós
• Tigre
• Tocantins
• Trombetas
• Ucayali
• Xingu
• Yapura

List past length [edit]

1. 6,400 km (iv,000 mi)^[2] (half-dozen,275 to 7,025 km (3,899 to 4,365 mi))^[three] – Amazon, South America
2. 3,250 km (2,019 mi) – Madeira, Bolivia/Brazil^[95]
3. 3,211 km (ane,995 mi) – Purús, Peru/Brazil^[96]
4. 2,820 km (one,752 mi) – Japurá or Caquetá, Republic of colombia/Brazil^[97]
5. 2,639 km (1,640 mi) – Tocantins, Brazil^[98]
6. 2,627 km (one,632 mi) – Araguaia, Brazil (tributary of Tocantins)^[99]
7. 2,400 km (ane,500 mi) – Juruá, Peru/Brazil^[100]
8. two,250 km (1,400 mi) – Rio Negro, Brazil/Venezuela/Republic of colombia^[101]
9. 1,992 km (1,238 mi) – Tapajós, Brazil^[102]
10. i,979 km (1,230 mi) – Xingu, Brazil^[103]
11. one,900 km (1,181 mi) – Ucayali River, Republic of peru^[104]
12. 1,749 km (i,087 mi) – Guaporé, Brazil/Bolivia (tributary of Madeira)^[105]
13. i,575 km (979 mi) – Içá (Putumayo), Ecuador/Colombia/Peru
14. 1,415 km (879 mi) – Marañón, Peru
15. ane,370 km (851 mi) – Teles Pires, Brazil (tributary of Tapajós)
16. one,300 km (808 mi) – Iriri, Brazil (tributary of Xingu)
17. 1,240 km (771 mi) – Juruena, Brazil (tributary of Tapajós)
18. i,130 km (702 mi) – Madre de Dios, Peru/Bolivia (tributary of Madeira)
19. 1,100 km (684 mi) – Huallaga, Republic of peru (tributary of Marañón)

Listing by inflow to the Amazon [edit]

Rank	Proper name	Average annual discharge (thousand^3/southward)	% of Amazon
	Amazon	209,000	100%
1	Madeira	31,200	15%
2	Negro	28,400	14%
3	Japurá	18,620	9%
4	Marañón	16,708	viii%
5	Tapajós	13,540	6%
6	Ucayali	13,500	5%
7	Purus	10,970	5%
8	Xingu	9,680	v%
9	Putumayo	8,760	4%
ten	Juruá	viii,440	iv%
xi	Napo	six,976	iii%
12	Javari	four,545	2%
13	Trombetas	three,437	ii%
14	Jutaí	3,425	2%
fifteen	Abacaxis	2,930	2%
16	Uatumã	two,190	one%

Meet also [edit]

• Amazon natural region
• Hamza River
• Apurimac River
• Peruvian Amazonia

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The length of the Amazon River is usually said to exist "at least" half-dozen,400 km (4,000 mi),^[2] only reported values lie anywhere between 6,275 and 7,025 km (3,899 and 4,365 mi).^[3] The length measurements of many rivers are only approximations and differ from each other because there are many factors that decide the calculated river length, such every bit the position of the geographical source and the oral fissure, the scale of measurement, and the length measuring techniques (for details see as well List of rivers by length).^{[3] [4]}
2. ^ The Nile is usually said to be the longest river in the world, with a length of about 6,650 km,^[17] and the Amazon the 2d longest river in the world, with a length of at least 6,400 km.^[two] In 2007 and 2008, some scientists claimed that the Amazon has a length of 6,992 km and was longer than the Nile, whose length was calculated every bit 6,853 km.^{[18] [19]} They achieved this issue by adding the waterway from the Amazon'due south southern outlet through tidal canals and the Pará estuary of the Tocantins.^{[ citation needed ]} A peer-reviewed article, published in 2009, states a length of vii,088 km for the Nile and 6,575 km for the Amazon, measured by using a combination of satellite prototype analysis and field investigations to the source regions.^[3] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of 2020, the length of the Amazon remains open to interpretation and continued debate.^{[two] [twenty]}

References [edit]

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35. ^ ^{a b} Wohl, 2011, p. 25.
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Bibliography [edit]

• This commodity incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Church, George Earl (1911). "Amazon". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 783–xc.
• Wohl, Ellen (2011). The Amazon: Rivers of Blushing Dolphins. A World of Rivers. The University of Chicago Press.

External links [edit]

• Information on the Amazon from Extreme Scientific discipline
• A photographic journey upwardly the Amazon River from its oral fissure to its source
• Amazon Live: Light & Shadow documentary film about the Amazon river
• Amazon River Ecosystem
• Research on the influence of the Amazon River on the Atlantic Sea at the University of Southern California
• Geographic data related to Amazon River at OpenStreetMap

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_River

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